The best way to look at it is to put a straight edge on the face of the coin with the edge at the top (0 degrees) and the bottom (180 degrees) through the center.  While holding the straight edge to the coin turn it over and note where the “top” of the reverse device is.  If it is in the same place as the top of the front device it is called 0-degree alignment. If the top of the reverse is at the bottom it is called 180-degree alignment.  Another way to examine die alignment is to hold the coin on the edge with the obverse facing you, your index finger at the top of the obverse design (0 degrees) and the thumb at the bottom of the design (180 degrees); then rotate the coin horizontally maintaining your index finger and thumb fixed on the same spot on the rim.   

The 0-degree alignment is called Medallic Rotation, while the 180-degree alignment is called Coin Rotation.  Now for the “real world”; Roman coinage was made using dies that were movable, so true 0 or 180 degree rotations were not always made.  You must guess at the rotation, to the nearest 15 degrees, if it is not at the 0 or 180 degree mark.  If you turn the coin over with the straight edge on it and the top of the obverse at the top of the rotated coin you must observe where the “top” of the reverse device is. If you observe that the top of the reverse device is pointing towards where the 3 would be on a clock face this is said to be 90-degree rotation. Or if it is pointing to the spot where the 9 would be on the face it is said to be 270-degree rotation.

Die alignment is useful in detecting older forgeries because the consistency of die alignment in some issues was not know centuries ago.  Die alignment is much less useful in detecting modern forgeries because most forgers are now aware of this characteristic.

Some issues do not show any consistency or pattern in die alignment.  These issues can be described as struck with "loose dies."

An alternative system is to use hours of the clock, (0 degrees = 12:00; 30 degrees = 1:00; 90 degrees = 3:00, 180 degrees = 6:00 and so on).

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Sarathi | Guide4Income | Physics4u | Shastri | India

Picture: A coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

 During the Delhi Sultanate, several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled from Delhi, including the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90), the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). In 1526 the Delhi Sultanate was absorbed by the emerging Mughal Empire.

The second Muslim invader, Muhammad of Ghor, had political ambitions. He fought the two Battles of Tarain with Prithviraj Chauhan and by winning the second battle and killing Prithviraj, established control. He appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, his slave, as his governor, who started an independent rule after the death of his master. The Mamluk dynasty is also known as the Slave Dynasty as Aibak was a former slave of Muhammad Ghori. Aibak began the construction of Qutub Minar, which was completed by Iltutmish, his successor and son-in-law. Aibek’s actual successor was his son Aramshah, but the nobles preferred Iltutmish, the Subedar of Badaun. Iltutmish was followed by Razia Sultana, his daughter, who was a good administrator and the first female ruler in the Muslim world. She was endowed with all qualities befitting a King, but she was not born of the right son. After the marriage with Altunia,(a noble of Bhatinda) her nobles revolted against her. They couldn’t accept this and she was killed by her nobles, after 3 and half years. Balban succeeded her and ruled until 1286 AD. Many infamous and inefficient rulers followed. Faced with revolts by conquered territories and rival families, the Mamluk dynasty came to an end in 1290.

Khalji: The Khalji or Khilji dynasty were Turko-Afghan, who had established themselves as rulers of Bengal in the time of Muhammad Ghori, took control of the empire in a coup which eliminated the last of the Mamluks. The Khaljis conquered Gujarat and Malwa, and sent the first expeditions south of the Narmada River, as far south as Tamil Nadu. Sultanate rule continued to extend into southern India, first by the Delhi Sultans, then by the breakaway Bahmani Sultanate of Gulbarga, and after the breakup of the Bahmani state in 1518, by the five independent Deccan Sultanates. The kingdom of Vijayanagar united southern India and arrested the Delhi Sultanate’s expansion for a time, until its eventual fall to the Deccan Sultanates in 1565.

Tughluq: The Tughlaq Dynasty lasted for close to a hundred years. It produced two powerful Sultans- Muhammad-Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq (1320–1325) was the first ruler of the dynasty. He was an efficient military commander. He was succeeded by Jauna Khan, who took the title of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He was a very powerful ruler. He thought of many ambitious schemes and unique experiments, but could not implement his ideas properly. He shifted his capital in 1326,from delhi to devgiri.After that devgiri known as daulatabad. but that was a failure. So were the ideas of introduction of token currency, the Qarachil expedition, taxation in the Do-ab, and the Khurasan expedition. He became very unpopular because of his schemes. He lost control over the empire and died in 1351. He was succeeded by Firoz shah Tughlaq (1351–1388). He was very successful as a reformer. After his death, a war of succession took place. Soon the region was reduced to just Delhi and its surrounding areas. In 1398, Taimur invaded Delhi, massacred and looted the city. Before leaving Delhi, he appointed Khizr Khan as his deputy, who became the first Sayyid ruler.

Sayyid: The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 to 1451, succeeding the Tughlaq dynasty. The dynasty was established by Khizr Khan, who was deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan (Punjab). Khizr Khan took Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodi on May 28, 1414 and founded the Sayyid dynasty.

Lodi: Lodi Dynasty was a Ghilzai (Khilji) Afghan dynasty, who ruled over the Delhi Sultanate during its last phase, displacing the Sayyid dynasty. Founded by Bahlul Lodi, it ruled from 1451 to 1526. The last ruler of this dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi, was defeated and killed by Babur in the first Battle of Panipat on April 20, 1526. Sikander Lodi is considered the greatest rule of the dynasty.

Coinage: In the first half of the 14th century, the Sultanate introduced a monetary economy in the provinces (sarkars) and districts (parganas) that had been established and founded a network of market centers through which the traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated and drawn into the wider culture. State revenues remained based on successful agriculture, which induced Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–51) to have village wells dug, to offer seed to the peasants, and to encourage cash crops like sugarcane  (Braudel 1984, pp 96f, 512ff).

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Picture: An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the cholas

The Chola dynasty  was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to the dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, a northern ruler; the dynasty continued to reign over varying territory until the 12th century AD.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-east Asia. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the thirteenth century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall.

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.

The coins issued by the later Chola Empire were a highly stylised issue of the king or animal motifs. They were issued in copper, silver and gold Kahavanu, though the gold also came in fractions of the unit. These coins were also issued during the occupation of Sri Lanka, the obverse usually had the king with various symbols and the reverse of the king on the throne with a Nagari legend.

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 The Shahi (Devanagari शाही), Sahi, also called Shahiya dynasties was one of the Middle kingdoms of India which ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in third century to the early ninth century. The kingdom was known as Kabul-shahan or Ratbel-shahan from (565 – 670 CE) when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura (also known as Hund) for its new capital.

Picture: Coin of Shahi Kings of Kabul & Gandhara : Samanta Deva , circa 850 AD -1000 AD. Obv: Rider bearing lance on caparisoned horse facing right.Devnagari Legends : ‘bhi’ ?. Rev:Recumbent bull facing left, trishula on bulls rump, Devnagari Legends: Sri Samanta Deva.

In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the north-western areas of the Indian sub-continent. It was used by Achaemenids, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul and Gilgit. In Persian form, the title appears as Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and the Ssaha of Mihirakula (Huna chief). The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title Shah-in-shahi ("Shaonano shao") in imitation of Achaemenid practice.

Ancient Jaina work Kalakacarya-kathanaka says that the rulers of the Sakas who had invaded Ujjaini/Malwa in 62 BCE also wore the titles of Sahi and Sahnusahi. Since the title Shahi was used by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul or Gandhara also in imitation of Kushana "Shao", it has been speculated by some writers that the Shahi dynasty of Kapisa/Kabul or Gandhara was a foreign dynasty and had descended from the Kushans or Turks (Turushkas). However, the title has been used by several rulers irrespective of any racial connotations and this may refute the above speculation. The Shahis of Kabul/Gandhara are generally split up into two eras—the so-called Buddhist-Shahis and the so-called Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 AD.

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Picture: Varaha (the boar-headed Vishnu avatar), on a Pratihara coin. 850-900 CE. British Museum

The Pratiharas are associated with the Gujjars and were granted the status of Agnivanshi Rajputs after they were Indianised by assimilating in Indian culture. In one late inscription the word Gurjar Pratihar has been found to be mentioned, therefore, they are also considered Gurjar Pratiharas. Gurjars were also Scythians therefore the roots were same.

Dr. K. Jamanadas also states that the Pratihara clan of Rajputs descended from the Gurjars, and this "raises a strong presumption that the other Rajput clans also are the descendants from the Gurjaras or the allied foreign immigrants". D. B. Bhandarkar also believed that Pratiharas were a clan of Gujjars. In his book The Glory that was Gujardesh (1943), historian K. M. Munshi stated that the Pratiharas and some other Rajput clans were of Gurjar origin. There was certainly a vast Gurjar empire in Northern India.Therefor, some other historians believe that although some sections of the Pratiharas (eg. the one to which Mathanadeva belonged) were Gurjar by clan. Kannauj was capital of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas.

Vincent Smith believed that the ruling clans of Pratiharas were certainly of Gurjar origin, and stated that there is possibility of other Agnikula Rajput clans being of same origin. The Pratiharas belonged to the same clan that of Gurjaras was proved by the "Rajor inscription". From the phrase "Gurjara Pratiharanvayah" inscribed in the "Rajor inscription". It is known that the Pratiharas belonged to the Gurjara clan. The Rashtrakuta records and the Arabian chronicles also identify the Pariharas with Gurjaras.

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The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of deccan and central India for over two centuries.

In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the Paramara of Malwa, Tailapa II a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Somesvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.

For over a century, the two empires of southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas enabling Cholas domination in the region. Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the twelfth century.

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit.

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They ruled from their capital Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) till the end of the 12th century.

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Chalukya Coins: Chaulukyas of Gujarat also known as Gadhaiya. There are different dynasties, refer to the link above for more detail. The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the northern kingdoms. The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right and the lotus. The silver coins weighed 4 grams and were called honnu in old Kannada or Gadhaiya Paisa in English and had fractions such as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern day equivalent being hana (literally means, money). The coin is highly stylised so a clear definition of a portrait can not be distinguished. A gold coin called Gadyana is mentioned in some record in Pattadakal which later came to be known a varaha which was also on their emblem.

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Picture: Coin of King Bhoja-I (Mihirabhoja or Adivaraha), Silver Dramma or Adivaraha Dramma, circa 836-885AD. Obv: Figure of  Varaha (Adivaraha), The boar incarnation of Vishnu wearing long "Vanamala" to right with left leg raised; below a small lion, to right a sun or wheel (chakra) symbol, Moon symbol and dumbbell like symbol above, A trident and conch shell on left side of Adivaraha. Rev: Two lined inscription "Shrimad Adi Varaha" with traces of Stylised fire alter accompanied with two ladies (attendants) to right and left.

Mihira Bhoja I (836-885 CE) or Bhoja I was a ruler of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty of India. He succeeded his father Ramabhadra.

Reign: Mihira Bhoja seems to have started his career with a debit balance of reverses and defeats suffered by his father Ramabhadra which had considerably lowered the prestige of the Pratihara family. He invaded the Pala Empire of Bengal, but was defeated by Devapala. He then launched a campaign to conquer the territories to the south of his kingdom, and was successful.

He gradually rebuilt the empire by his conquests of the territories in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The Chandelas of Bundelkhand acknowledged his suzeranity. At its height, Bhoja’s kingdom extended to Narmada River in the South, Sutlej River in the North-West, River and up to Bengal in the East. It extended over a large area from the foot of the Himalayas up to the river Narmada and included the present district of Etawah in Uttar Pradesh.

A follower of Brahmanism, he was a bitter enemy of the Muslims. According to an Arab chronicler, Sulaiman, Mihira Bhoja I maintained a large army and had a fine cavalry. The territories under his rule were most prosperous in India and safe from robbers. His state was rich in natural resources, especially gold and silver mines. Bhoja I was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala (c. 885-910 CE). During his reign, the capital was in Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh), during his period Kannauj was referred as Panchala.

Salaiman an arab invader who visited India praised his administarion as follows: "The king of Gurjars maintain numerous faces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry .He has great riches and his camels and horses are numerous.There is no country in India more safe from robbers"

He was undoubtebly one of the outstanding political figure of India in ninth century and ranks with Dhruva and dhampala as a great general and empire builder.

The Great Gurjar King Mihira Bhoja I’s epithet was Srimadadivaraha (the fortunate primeval boar incarnation of Vishnu) and therefore there is a broad agreement amongst the scholars on the attribution of adivaraha dramma billon coins to him. These coins have a depiction of adivaraha on the obverse. On the reverse,Proto-Devanagari legend srimadadivaraha is written along with some pictorial elements.

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They expanded into the Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh. This area is still referred to as Palnadu or Pallava Nadu. Pallavas gained prominence after the eclipse of Satavahanas of Andhra and decline of Cholas in Tamilnadu. The Pallavas patronized Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit. Some of the most illustrious Sanskrit poets like Bharavi and Dandin and the seashore rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram belongs to the Pallavan era.

Pallavas rose in power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century.

Throughout their reign they were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south and were finally defeated by the Chola kings in the 8th century CE.

Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, still seen today in Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval south Indian architecture. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty, a contemporary of Skandavarman IV and Nandivarman I, and the son of Simhavarman II, but this is debatable.

Pallava Coinage: Early studies about pallava coins were made by Sir Walter Elliot (1858), T.Desikachary (1933), C.Minaksi (1938), S.Ramayya (1967). The pallava coins were minted in Lead, Copper and Bronze. Silver and Gold are rare, and so far not yet discovered, but in pallava inscriptions there is the note about the Gold coins. The coins were mostly round, very few in square. They Weight about 0.450 to 9.8 grams and Size is about 1 cm to 2.5 cms. Basic symbol in pallava coins is Bull and Lion. Bull is the Royal Emblem of Pallavas and Emblem of Lord Siva. Apart from bull and lion, symbols like Svastika, Cakra, Flag, Twin masted ship, Elephant, Crescent were also seen in pallava coins.

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This article mainly concerns the Alchon and their Indo-Hephthalites ruling-elite. The latter seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, who established themselves in what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. They sometimes call themselves "Hono" on their coins, but it seems that they are similar to the Huns who invaded the Western world.

They originated in Northwestern India and parts of eastern Iran. During their invasion, the Hunas managed to capture the Sassanian king Peroz I, and exchanged him for a ransom. They used the coins of the ransom to counter mark and copy them, thereby initiating a coinage inspired from Sassanian designs.

The Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata, supposed to have been edited around the 4th or 5th century, in one of its verses, mentions the Hunas with the Parasikas and other Mlechha tribes of the northwest including the Yavanas, Chinas, Kambojas, Darunas, Sukritvahas, Kulatthas etc. According to Dr V. A. Smith, the verse is reminiscent of the period when the Hunas first came into contact with the Sassanian dynasty of Persia .

Coin: Billon drachm of the Hephthalite King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. 475-576)

Coin depics Obv: Napki Malka type bust, winged headdress with bull head in the center. Pahlavi legend "NAPKI MALKA". Rev: Zoroastrian fire altar with attendants either side. Sun wheel, or possibly eight-spoked Buddhist Dharmacakra, above left. Based on the design of the Sassanid coinage but a little barbarous.

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